Reader's Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reader's Response - Essay Example Her new house is in a squalid neighborhood that she is embarrassed of. Because of her house, her race and culture are more defined and the more she is shameful of it. However, Esperanza realizes that her identity is her own doing. After being raped, she resolves to free herself from her house, but not completely enough to forget its role in shaping her identity. â€Å"Everyday Use† uses the quilt as a symbol of the interconnectedness of traditions through the people who believe in its validity through lived experiences. The quilt stands for rural tradition that only Maggie understands. Like the quilt, Maggie and Mama have not changed at all, and they are happy with their simple rural life. Dee rejects this everyday use of their cultural artifacts: â€Å"[Maggie] probably be backward enough to put [the quilts] to everyday use† (Walker). Mama believes that she knows better, when she gives the quilts to Maggie. To use it every day is what their traditions are. Traditions are meant to be experienced and not hidden in a museum. Nathaniel Hawthorne studies the loss of innocence in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† through the symbol of pink ribbons. These pink ribbons stand for the innocence of his wife and the purity of the church. Because of his dreams in the woods, the pink ribbons have turned into tools of deception. His dreams shook his faith and destroyed its pink ribbons that he once believed in. These symbols show how objects can be related to human issues and beliefs. A house can mean isolation and redemption. A pink ribbon reflects both innocence and delusion. A quilt stands for interconnection and traditions. Thus, these symbols acquire significance because these authors embedded meaning into their purposes and

Reflective Report on Mega Simulation Game

Reflective Report on Mega Simulation Game EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The report is about a 12-week critical evaluation about my experience of the Mega Simulation Game that I was to execute with other four group members. The exercise requires identifying the primary reflective theories that will be used for reflective learning. In my case, I used Lawrence-Wilkes REFLECT and Gibbs Reflective Model. I used these two models to enumerate on two incidences in the group work experience, which were related to interpersonal dynamics, and personal performance in-group work. The interpersonal dynamics such as personality clashes, different cultural values, and personal interests acted as a hindrance to communication and collaboration. However, the commitment of the team was very high and this kept the team going. The second incidence was on personal performance where the group leveraged on individual strengths and delegated tasks. The delegation of tasks was fruitful but the end product was not due to personal interests overriding the group interests. I learnt t he need for effective communication, the power of leadership and the need to accommodate varied opinions. Introduction Reflection has numerous meaning that includes self-review, self-awareness, self-criticism, self-appraisal, self-assessment, personal cognizance and other terms that are related to these terms. Boyd and Fales (1983) defined reflection learning as the process of externally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self and which results in a changed conceptual perceptive. The definition brings out key important issues in reflective learning: there needs to be an issue that is examined, meaning of the issue must be derived and lastly the meaning should improve the perspective of the individual in a similar situation in the future. In this reflection paper, I will pursue two types of reflection: interpersonal dynamics and performance of the members of the groups. Teamwork is used everywhere from class settings to organizations and even communities to accomplish tasks that require collaboration, brainstorming and synergy. The primary objective of a team is delegation of responsibility and development of a proper plan for the completion of a goal (Hughes and Jones, 2011). The interpersonal dynamics is about how people use nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and body language to complement verbal communication in on-on-one interactions. The reason I decided to discuss interpersonal dynamics is because I saw the group as a cross-functional one rather than a functional one. The reasons I think the group was cross-functional was that all the members in the group were specializing on different careers and also we had never worked together as a team. The simulation game was a onetime project where the group would be dissolved after its completion. Parker (2015) noted that cross functional teams were more susceptible to interpersonal barriers such as cultural biases, work styles, turf wars, conflicts, lack of trust, and differing priorities. Some of these things played out during our game simulation task. The second area that I am going to explore is performance of members in the group. I felt this is an area worthy of exploitation as the different members had a different level of performance towards contributing to the success of the group. It is impossible to separate team performance from individual performance because the former depends on the latter. Individual standards comprise of the performance expectations that each team member expresses as personal pressure to achieve (Larson and LaFasto, 1999). I specifically noted that I put a lot of effort together with another member in the teamwork, which stimulated others to perform better, but sometimes it was not sufficient enough to reach our desired goals. I will employ the Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988) and Lawrence-Wilkes REFLECT model (2014) to critically reflect on the two MSG experiences. I used Gibbs reflective model because it is a simple model to use and provides questions that I have to answer in a particular order. Just like the Gibbs model, Lawrence-Wilkes REFLECT model uses a simple concept of reflection making it easy for the user to apply it. The model uses a bacronym (an acronym devised in reverse to fit a word) on the word REFLECT. I will not be using the Honey and Munfords learning style as it is too simplistic in its steps to allow me to critically reflect on my experiences. Gibbs reflective model is a useful tool in reflection as it provides critical phases of an experience from what one experienced to how they would make changes and respond better in subsequent events. The different phases include description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and action plan. Below is the Gibbs reflective cycle with the relevant questions that need to be answered for each phase Figure 1 (Gibbs, 1988) Gibbs reflective model directly fits to the happenings of the group. In my reflection, I was first wondering why there was no sense of cohesion in the group when we started. The opinions were so diverse and the commitments were so dissimilar. I was feeling that personal priorities and interest were coming in the way of cooperative approach. Most of the group members, including I felt distraught and disillusioned by the progress of the group in the initial weeks due to the lack of organization and poor ranking. We did not have a leader who would inspire us through the disillusionment. In the Tuckmans stages, the group dwelled so much in the forming stage where the group members were getting to know each other and there was general socializing (Martin, 2006). Lawrence-Wilkes -REFLECT model (2014) comprises of steps that are almost similar to that of Gibbs reflective cycle but it goes to a deeper level to analyze elements such as strengths and weaknesses, reference to external checks, looking at the responsibilities and asking the what if question. The model examines more details that not only assist in reviewing past experiences but also learning from them and integrating new ideas to enable change. The model requires reviewing of experiences from both objective and subjective angles. Below is the REFLECT barconym used in the model. Table 1 (Lawrence-Wilkes and Ashmore, 2014)   Ã‚   Lawrence-Wilkes REFLECT model of Reflective Practice R 1. Reflect Look back, review and ensure intense experiences are reviewed cold (subjective and objective). E 2. Evaluate What happened? What was important? (Subjective and objective) F 3. Focus Who, what, where, etc. Roles, responsibilities, etc. (Mostly objective) L 4. Learn Question: why, reasons, perspectives, feelings? Refer to external checks. (Subjective and objective) E 5. Evaluate Causes, outcomes, strengths, weaknesses, feelings use metacognition. (Subjective and objective) C 6. Consider Assess options, need/possibilities for change? Development needs? What if? scenarios? Refer to external checks. (Mostly objective) T 7. Trial Integrate new ideas, experiment, take action, and make change. (Repeat cycle: Recall) Incident 1: My group was comprised of five members that are evidently from different cultural backgrounds and also hold diverse views and values. I noticed due to the diversity in the group, there was no effective communication and there were issues when it came to sense of responsibility.   The first incident was our groups inability to operate cohesively due to differences in personality and cultural values. My previous encounter with the topic of diversity is that it (diversity) can lead to team effectiveness and innovation (West, 2012). But on the contrary, the initial weeks of our groups was faced with communication challenges as we worked together. Initially, I thought that the reason for the incongruity was that the exercise was new to everyone and no one had substantive information on how to go about the exercise. Everyone in the group was in constant search of what is expected of the exercise. The disappointment was evident in week 3 due to the poor ranking, which left everyone demotivated. Waller, Gupta and Giambatista (2004) noted that lack of effective communication leads to deviation from attaining team goals. We got confused on what were our desired goals. Despite the miscommunication, the group was able to function as there were elements that were consistent with structuration theory on how groups use rules and resources to form its structure (Frey, Gouran and Poole, 1999). Our group was held together by the weekly meeting that were mandatory and I believe were it not for the rules, the team functioning would have been impaired. I must applaud my group because irrespective of the communication barriers, the group was able to hold on and try to overcome these barriers. The attendance of the meetings was satisfactory as there was minimal absenteeism, which was accompanied by apologies and genuine reasons such as illness or class time. In my assessment, the general theme of the group according to Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was feelers instead if thinkers. Feelers judge situations based on feelings or emotions while thinkers judge situations based on logical analysis (Quenk, 2013). Most of the choices that were made such as marketing for image cars were based on personal emotions, which lead to disregard of facts and information. I must admit despite the personality clash in the group; all the group members were committed to accomplishing the task successfully. The commitment even inspired us on meeting twice a week to try and better our ranking and get a better grip of the whole game simulation concept. Personally, I was not thinking about how to bridge the miscommunication gap or clashing personalities but on the task at hand and this was also the general trend in the group. Even up to the end of the exercise in the 12th week, we communicated but we never did so effectively. The ranking of the group improved over time even though it did not reach the desired goal. Upon critical review at the end of the exercise, I could only make sense of the group performance through the self-organization theory. The theory postulates that order can arise from a disordered system due to interactions of distinct parts of the system. The incidence on interpersonal dynamics, especially the personality clashes and miscommunication between the group members, helped me to develop transferable skills to do with closing ranks when it comes to personality and cultural differences. The group would have attained a better rank if we resolved the disillusionment in the early stages of teaming as this would have gone a long way in working harmoniously (Searle and Swartz, 2015). I also saw the fruits of commitment as the members were able to perform regardless of the cohesion problems. Incident 2 The second incident was related to the individual performances and their contribution to the overall group performance. Personally, I believe am a natural leader who takes the mantle of leadership in any situation. I believe that one does not need to be appointed formally to take the leadership role but can take the steering wheel from any position. I subscribe to the relationship-oriented leadership model where the leader is more focused on the human resources than the task at hand. I would motivate the members of the group by telling them how the assignment was important and how we should all be committed towards improving our ranking. The group needed a small dose of external motivation to keep them going and energized (Beagle, 2012). When I was motivating and inspiring the team, I found the motivator in me, which was essential in keeping myself going and also the group. I noticed that a team produced synergy and a better output than an individual but it is the latter that contributes to the results of the former. Despite the shaky start, we realized that we need to use our individual strengths for team success (Graham et al., 2012). At different points of the assignment, we had to assign and delegate duties and cover ground on the different actions that needed to be taken. We tried to leverage on the strengths of the individual members as much as possible. The use of individual strengths to delegate tasks did not work effectively as I expected as the third phase of Fishers Theory of Decision Emergence was not adhered to. The third phase is the emergence phase where an individual needs to soften on their stance and let the interest of the team prevail over personal interests (Littlejohn, Foss and Oetzel, 2016). In some situations, we had to go with individual opinions instead of consensus, which did not work well for the team. In the future, I would advocate for more compromise and consensus instead of personal opinions as the latter risks being biased and non-inclusive. I learnt that anyone can be a situational leader if they wanted to make a difference amidst uncertainty and anyone can lead from any position (Alizor, 2013).   I saw the importance of delegating duties as it covered more ground but it needs better coordination to achieve a common goal. I believe my strength and individual contribution was leadership and motivation. Conclusion I appreciate the experience as it was an eye-opener especially on different aspects of group tasks. I understood how group dynamics can work against the success of a team and they need to be identified and dealt with at the early stages of an assignment.   For instance, team members need to understand each others values and culture, and accommodate them. Understanding each other is the first step of breaking the communication barrier. I appreciated the importance of effective communication, which our group lacked, eventually leading to poor coordination and cooperation. I must admit that the strength of our group lied in commitment more than anything else. After communication, personal interest was the other weakness. I learnt the need to let other team members speak their mind, brainstorming and softening individual stance for the good of the team. I was a culprit myself of holding strong stances, sometimes unconsciously, on some of the issues. Looking back at the exercise, I acknowledge that for better interpersonal reactions, the parties need self-awareness. Lastly, I appreciated the power of leadership in motivating and inspiring team members towards tasks accomplishment. References      Ã‚   Alizor, J. (2013). Leadership: Understanding Theory, Style, Practice: Things You Need to Know about Leading an Organization. 1st ed. Bloomington, IN: WestBow Press. Beagle, M. (2012). The Rock: Motivational Leadership: A Leaders Perspective On Inspiring Others While Finding the Motivator in You. 1st ed. Bloomington: iUniverse, Inc. Boyd, E. and Fales, A. (1983). Reflective Learning: Key to Learning from Experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23(2), pp.99-117. Frey, L., Gouran, D. and Poole, M. (1999). The handbook of group communication theory and research. 1st ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. 1st ed. [London]: FEU. Graham, S., Emery, S., Hall, R., Blanchard, K., Huntsman, J., Lennick, D., Kiel, F. and Jordan, K. (2012). Leading Teams with Integrity: Advice from Leadership Experts. 1st ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press. Hughes, R. and Jones, S. (2011). Developing and assessing college student teamwork skills. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2011(149), pp.53-64. Larson, C. and LaFasto, F. (1999). Teamwork. 1st ed. Newbury Park (Calif.): Sage Publ. Lawrence-Wilkes, L. and Ashmore, L. (2014). The reflective practitioner in professional education. 1st ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Littlejohn, S., Foss, K. and Oetzel, J. (2016). Theories of Human Communication. 11th ed. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc. Martin, B. (2006). Outdoor leadership: Theory and Practice. 1st ed. Windsor, ON: Human Kinetics. Parker, G. (2015). Cross- Functional Teams: Working with Allies, Enemies, and Other Strangers. 1st ed. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass. Quenk, N. (2013). Essentials of myers-briggs type indicator assessment. 1st ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Searle, M. and Swartz, M. (2015). Teacher Teamwork: How do we make it work?. 1st ed. New York: Association for Supervision Curriculum Development. Waller, M., Gupta, N. and Giambatista, R. (2004). Effects of Adaptive Behaviors and Shared Mental Models on Control Crew Performance. Management Science, 50(11), pp.1534-1544. West, M. (2012). Effective Teamwork: Practical Lessons from Organizational Research. 1st ed. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons. Theories Used 1. Gibbs Reflective Model (1988) 2. Lawrence Wilkes REFLECTION (2014) 3. Tuckman Stages of Group Development (1965) 4. Structuration Theory 5. Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (1956) 6. Self-Organization Theory 7. Relationship-Oriented Leadership Model 8. Situational Leadership Model 9. Fishers Theory of Decision Emergence Appendices Logbook Week No./date of meeting(s) Action point(s) Team member/time of arrival/leave Potentially areas that every member worked on State of team / work in progress Week 2 (3th October 2016) Get all members of group together and sign learning contract Structuring what must be done for next meeting a)George Iashvili -11am b)Claudia Borges-11am c)Carlos Chalhoub-11am d)Cagri Ozecoglu-11am e) Ilya Ignatov-11am (All left same time as class was finished) There was no game simulation this week so no work to be done as a group yet Learning Contract signed and we got all group members now. Week 3-First Meeting on Gaming Simulation (14 October 2016) 1.Speak about steps we needed to take for the game and whether we all watched the video and read the game manual. 2.Start to look at game excel sheet. 3.Making sure all members had put their name in the game simulation. a)George Iashvili-1pm b)Claudia Borges-1pm c)Carlos Chalhoub-1pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-1pm e) Ilya Ignatov-1pm -All members that attended looked at each section of the decision sheet together and made decisions as a group. Task completed-all the members looked at the decision document and discussed on WhatsApp what steps to take as well as what we needed to do in the next meeting, which was to figure out a more accurate strategy and approach. At this point we still didnt know how to play the game properly. Some group members still not giving suggestions on the decisions. Some members still not contributing. Week 3-Second Meeting on Gaming Simulation (17 October 2016) 1.Make sure we all knew how to fill in the decision document. 2. Conclude on what car we wanted. 2.Fill in decision document. 3.Submit the decision   document. a)George Iashvili -Didnt Attend, sick on day of meeting. b) Claudia Borges-Didnt Attend, informed group could attend due to having lesson c)Carlos Chalhoub-12:30 d)Cagri Ozecoglu-12:30 e) Ilya Ignatov-did not attend, could not attend due to having lesson too. -Claudia filled in some of the document and sent an email to the rest of the group. The members who attended all worked through the rest of the decision document together. -The group had little to no strategy in mind as we did not know the specifics on how to play the game properly yet. The group tried using common sense and logic as we hadnt known that the information was available on the mega learning website. Feeling disappointed with the result that we got for last week.However,we tried our best for the next decision to be better. Some group members go demotivated. Week 4(20/10/2016) 1.To look over everything and looked at the results of the last simulation game and analyse it. 2.We had the game reset this week 3.Try to make changes to the game in order to get better results. 4.To ensure the use of the information available on the mega learning website and blackboard on the consumer sensitivity and market growth, in order to configure a clear strategy. a)George Iashvili -13:00 b)Claudia Borges-13:00 c)Carlos Chalhoub-13:00 d)Cagri Ozecoglu-13:00 e) Ilya Ignatov-did not attend,but informed the group ahead of non-attendance. -We all looked through the decision document and made decisions on each section together as a group after thoroughly discussing everything. Also, we made sure we used the information available to us on consumer sensitivity, market growth and each decisions effect on budget. -We had a much better idea on how the game simulation works this week and used all the information given to us which made our decisions improve greatly. Also, almost the whole group was at the meeting which was very beneficial for the decision analysis and strategy direction that the group wanted to take. There was a clash in personalities which was affecting some decisions.There was a lot of miscommunication between the group. Week 5(27/10/2016) 1. We planned to keep to our strategy that we used in week 4 as it seemed to work. a)George Iashvili -11am b)Claudia Borges- did not attend c)Carlos Chalhoub-11am d)Cagri Ozecoglu-11am e) Ilya Ignatov-11am -All who attended analysed the decisions together as a group and made more aggressive decisions on many of the consumer behaviour sensitivity and prices of the sectors, which changed our strategy direction. -We couldnt keep to our strategy that we had in the previous week and the decisions made were too aggressive which gave us a low rank on the mega learning simulation. Some results and decisions that we made the week before worked and gave the game a good result so we kept them the same. Week 6 (3/11/2016) 1.Region 2 started this week So, we had to make sure to look at each section of the simulation game and try to increase our capacity of how many cars we can sell on region 1 and get much capacity for region 2.-Try to look at Eco-friendly cars and lower product appeal from the previous week because it was too high. 3.Look at marketing appeal for image cars higher and try focus on low cost and eco-friendly cars because the market growth is increasing in both these two sectors. a)George Iashvili -12:30am b)Claudia Borges-12:30am c)Carlos Chalhoub-12:30am d)Cagri Ozecoglu-12:30am e) Ilya Ignatov-12:30am -Claudia looked at filling how many models in range for each category, how many new parts needed and looking at price for the cars. -the rest of the group tried to focus on the action points so making sure that look at product appeal and which areas need the most product appeal, like eco-friendly was too high the previous week so to decrease that and -Focus on trying to get the EBIT down and capacity up and at the same time to make the best decisions for the simulations game based on last weeks results. -We now had a better understanding of how the game was worked and we starting to get better rankings now. Now we had a better understanding we   could do better for region 2. Week 7(8/11/2016) 1.Try to meet more as a group, have at least two meetings a week. 2.Try make sure we discuss the previous weeks results 3.Try to focus on eco-friendly and image sectors due to this these two sectors being the ones we are doing weak at the moment. 4.Try to look get product appeal up and again look at capacity for eco-friendly and image sector. Also, look at image cars due to sales revenue being so low in that sector and see what is happening and what is affecting for cars not to be selling. 5.Decrease low cost unit cost and family unit cost too. -Focus on region 1 as region 2 sales are good, however the sales for region 1 have gone down from last week. a)George Iashvili -14pm b)Claudia Borges-14pm c)Carlos Chalhoub-14pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-14pm e) Ilya Ignatov-14pm As a group, we tried to resolve our action points such as meeting more often, so timetables were sent of each of the members timetable so we could see which day would be the best to meet. Secondly, we looked at resolving our problem with image cars and why we were not selling as much cars as we could and found out this was due to capacity was low and tried to increase this for the next weeks decision. Thirdly, try to decrease the unit cost for low cost due to being too high and also for family the unit cost was too high as well so we decreased this too. Look over previous weeks results and compare to current week to see what is happening and what is going wrong in the eco-friendly and image sectors and why our capacity is not increasing. Achieved a good ranking for region 1, however region 2 ranking went down. Week 8(17/11/2016) 1.Focus on family cars sector because our sales have gone down a lot from previous weeks 2.Focus on image sector too because our capacity for region 1 is still low and for region 2 is too low and we need to try and increase this. 3.Discuss our results from previous week and what decisions need to be changed based on teachers feedback and our online results. a)George Iashvili -14pm b)Claudia Borges-14pm c)Carlos Chalhoub-14pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-14pm e) Ilya Ignatov-14pm -As a group we focused on looking at the capacity for the eco-friendly and image cars because it was really low and also tried to increase low cost cars capacity due to selling a lot of low cost cars each week, however not using all capacity. -Making sure that we kept some decisions the same such as low cost and family car unit prices. Week 9(24/11/2016) 1.Looking at previous weeks decisions as it was good result and there was a lot of increase for capacity for all regions 1 and 2 and sales revenue increased. So look at what decisions were made that got as to have such a good result. a)George Iashvili -14pm b)Claudia Borges-14pm c)Carlos Chalhoub-14pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-14pm e) Ilya Ignatov-14pm -As a team we made sure we went through each region 1 and 2 and made sure we looked at the engineering, how much we were investing in capacity and also HR and also looking at unit prices for each sector such as low cost and family prices. These two sector prices were too high and causing us to lose customers. Capacity was also a problem for our region 2 because we had less capacity for low cost cars and family and we tried our best to increase this and tried to keep our costs down. However, at the same time trying to fix our problem with eco-friendly and image cars due to the fact that no cars were being sold in that sector. -Making sure that we make investments into region 2 -Try to look at unit prices whether too high or low. Week 10(1/12/2016) 1.Make investments in region 2 2. Look at facilities for each car section and for each region 1 and 2 3.Look at prices for each section 4.Again try to increase capacity in each section. a)George Iashvili -Could not attend b)Claudia Borges-Could not attend c)Carlos Chalhoub-1pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-Could not attend e) Ilya Ignatov- Could not attend -Carlos looked at each section and saw what we could do to firstly increase the capacity. The sectors we tried to increase our capacity were low costs cars and family cars in region 1 and 2, and eco-friendly cars and image cars in region 2 due to the fact that the capacity was 0. Then Carlos sent a copy of the file by e-mail to everyone in the group to have a look at before we submitted. -We also made some investments in HR and capacity for region 2 -Increase Capacity -Look at eco-friendly and image cars sectors for regions two Week 11(8/12/2016) 1.Look at region 2 image cars and eco-friendly and see why no sales being made. 2.Again increase capacity for region 1 low cost and family cars and try to use all capacity available. a)George Iashvili -1pm b)Claudia Borges-1pm c)Carlos Chalhoub-1pm d)Cagri Ozecoglu-1pm e) Ilya Ignatov-1pm -As a group we discussed why we were having the problem in region 2 in the eco-friendly and image car sector. Due to the fact that for the last few weeks of decisions we have put invested in the HR department and also made others investments but despite this these two sectors did not make any sales. -We made a decision to sell off eco-friendly and image cars in region 2 and use the money to invest in region -Decision to sell off region 2 eco-friendly

Court Case Number 15: Bowers V. Hardwick (june 30, 1986) :: essays research papers

Court Case Number 15: Bowers v. Hardwick (June 30, 1986)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In August of 1982, Michael Hardwick was charged with violating the Georgia statute criminalizing sodomy by committing that act with another adult male in the bedroom of Hardwick's home. Hardwick then brought suit in the Federal District Court, therefore challenging the constitutionality of the statute as it criminalized sodomy. Hardwick asserted that he was a practicing homosexual, that the Georgia statute, as administered by the defendants, placed him in imminent danger of arrest and that the statute for several reasons violates the Federal Constitution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I oppose the Court of Appeals decision that Michael Hardwick's complaint was dismissed by evidence seen through rights readily identifiable in the Constitution's text involved much more that the imposition of the Justices' own choice of values on the States and the Federal Government, the Court sought to identify the nature of rights for heightened judicial protection. Such landmark court decisions as Palko v. Connecticut stated this category includes those fundamental liberties that are â€Å"implicit in the concept of ordered liberty,† such that â€Å"neither liberty nor justice would exist if any fundamental liberties were sacrificed.† In Moore v. East Cleveland, fundamental liberties are characterized as those liberties that are â€Å"deeply rooted in this Nation's history and tradition.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Proscriptions against a fundamental right to homosexuals to engage in acts of consensual sodomy have ancient roots. Sodomy was a criminal offense at common law and was forbidden by the laws of the original thirteen States when they ratified the Bill of Rights. In 1868, when the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, all but five of the thirty-seven States in the Union had criminal sodomy laws. In fact, until 1961, all fifty States and the District of Columbia continue to provide criminal penalties for sodomy performed in private and between consenting adults.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As his honorable Justice John Paul Stevens opinion stated, sodomy was condemned as an odious and sinful type of behavior during the formative period of the common law. That condemnation was equally damning for heterosexual and homosexual sodomy. Moreover, it provided no special exemption for married couples. The license to cohabit and to produce legitimate offspring simply did not include any permission to engage in sexual conduct that was considered a â€Å" crime against nature.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One the more prominent features of Bowers v. Hardwick involved the Georgia statute, â€Å"the presumed belief of a majority of the electorate in Georgia that homosexual sodomy is immoral and unacceptable.† The Georgia electorate enacted a law that presumably reflects the belief that all sodomy is immoral and unacceptable. Unless the Court is prepared to conclude that such a law is

Analysis of the Text “the Time-Sweepers” by Ursula Wills-Jones

Analysis of the text â€Å"The Time-Sweepers† By Ursula Wills-Jones The following short story is about time-sweepers and lost time. They are people who sweep up all the time that is lost or wasted. They are invisible, but sometimes they can be noticed. They carry a broom, a mop and a big dustpun. The time-sweepers are hard-working. They work every day and are never sick. The lost and wasted time is packed and recycled.But not every type of time can be recycled, the most poisoned time is buried in a tank underneath a disused army base. The rest of the time can be sold to the people who need it or distributed to good causes or emergency situations. The full text is built on the conflict between people who waste time and people who sweep up all the time that is lost and wasted. Ursula Wills-Jones idealizes the time-sweepers and ridicules people.The author uses the stylistic device of climax in order to describe different types of time wasting: the man who has waited so long to pr opose to his girlfriend; the woman who has spent thirty-five loathed years in an estate agents, dreaming of opening a florists. The author refers to the stylistic device of hyperbole in order to laugh at the people who waste time: the time-sweeper will pass straight by the desk of the woman who is reading a holiday catalogue under the desk, poring over photos of tropical beaches.They will pass by the next desk, where a man is enjoyably wondering what his mother-in-law looks like naked, and stop by the desk of the young man who is counting every minute, and loathing the hours. The author creates a constant presence of time sweepers. The reader feels that they are everywhere: in the railway station, in the office, at your desk. The time-sweepers are hard-working; they don’t like to rest because there is so mush wasted time after holidays: it takes them around three weeks to resume normal service†¦

Consideration is the essential element Essay

Introduction 1 According to Lord Pollock’s definition of consideration which is an act or forbearance of one party, or the promise thereof, is the price for which the promise of the other is bought and the promise thus given for value is enforceable.2 Besides that, consideration must be something of value given or promised in exchange for the promise given by the other party in order for a valid contract to be formed.3 The term â€Å"something of value† can be defined as a payment, an act or services, an object or giving up legal right. There are certain rules of consideration that have been established in the precedent case. The first rule of consideration is it will only exist when a contract is to be enforceable.4 Secondly, a good consideration can be done in the present and future but not the past.5 A consideration can be done even though the promisor has no knowledge of it.6 The fourth rule of consideration is it does not have to be adequate or commercially realistic.7 Also, consideration must be tangible and cannot be too vague. 8 Lastly, consideration must be legally sufficient in the eye of the law.9 The objective of this research essay is to discuss and explain the rule of the consideration which is consideration does not have to be adequate or commercially realistic but it has to be sufficient and how these legal concepts relate to the cases. Thus, this research essay also discusses whether Australia contract law should provide greater clarity about what is sufficient consideration. Consideration can be Nominal It is one of the rules of consideration where consideration does not have to be adequate or commercially realistic.10 This rule simply means that the price in return does not have to be right.11 Thus, court will not look into whether the price is adequate or not, as long as some price is paid, the court will not look further about it. Even though it is a very low price or a nominal price is paid or promised, the price might be a price in name only. The case of Thomas v Thomas12is often cited on this rule. In the case of Thomas v Thomas where Thomas was ill and he had made a will but had made no provision for his wife’s residence after his death. He called his executor and requested that when he died his wife could live in his house until her demise. The executor agreed and later drew up an agreement with  the Thomas’s wife. She was requires to pay $ 1.00 per year to stay in the house until she died. The court held that, any amount of money is enough to support a contract even though the price that requires to paid was only a nominal price. Thus, the court will not look behind the price as long as a price is paid or promised. Through the case of Thomas v Thomas, it shows that any some of money even it is small or nominal, it will constitute good consideration for a contract.13 Besides that, the court are not involved in the price detailed for two reason which the first is the â€Å"freedom of contract† principle applies and the second reason is that the case wouldn’t end if the court did look into more detail of the price to be paid.14 Furthermore, consideration does not only express in currency terms, it can also be anything valuable. This concept has been stated in the case of Chappell & Co v Nestle Co Ltd.15 In the case of Chappell & Co v Nestle Co Ltd, Nestle want to promote their sale of the chocolate, they offered recorded music to the public for the sterling equivalent of 15 cents, but buyers had to also send in the wallpaper from three 5 cents chocolate bar. Where, Chappell owned the copyright of one of tunes in the free record so they charge Nestle 6.25% of the retail selling price. Chappell claimed revenue of 6.25% of the record price plus the value of three chocolate bar wrappers. The court held that the empty wrappers were part of revenue collected. The fact that the empty wrappers have no intrinsic value to Nestle was irrelevant. Thus, the consideration for the free record was the money plus the value of three chocolate bars wrappers. As we can see from the case of Chappell & Co v Nestle Co Ltd, the chocolate bars wrappers would have constituted sufficient consideration in the eye of the law.16 Therefore, consideration does not only express in money term, it can also be anything that is valuable. Consideration must be tangible This is another rule of consideration where it must not be too vague or indefinite.17 Consideration must be tangible but not nebulous.18 This has been shown in the case of White v Bluett.19 In White v Bluett, a son  borrowed money from his father and signed a â€Å"promissory note† to prove the debt. He notices that similar loans were made by his father to his brother without a note having been signed. He harassed his father, and his father told him that he would forgive the repayment of debt if the son ceases the harassment. After the father died, the administrator of the estate found out the note and sued the son but the son argued that the debt had been forgiven in consideration of his undertaking to cease harassment. The court held that there is no consideration as the promise was too vague to have legally recognized value. From the case of White v Bluett, it shown that if a promise is relied on as consideration is too vague and indefinite that the courts will not enforced it and it will not constitute consideration.20 Consideration must be Legally Sufficient This rule simply mean that consideration must be sufficient and it must have a legally value recognised value.21 Thus, a mere moral obligation or the natural love and affection do not deliver sufficient consideration.22 This has been shown in the case of Eastwood v Kenyon.23 In this case, as a guardian, Eastwood had incurred many expenses for the girl. 24 As an adult, the girl and her husband Kenyon promised to pay Eastwood.25 At the end, they refuse to pay back then Kenyon was sued upon this promise. Therefore, the situation show that such a moral obligation is not a consideration.26 Besides that, in general rule a promise to perform an existing obligation is not a sufficient consideration as it promises no more than what that party already bound to do.27The rule expresses the concept of illusory consideration. Thus, when there is a promise not to sue, or when there is an abandon to a claim, it can be a sufficient consideration. This has been shown in the case of Wigan v Edward28. Where the court decision is that, given that the buyer honestly believed that they do not need to settle unless he rectified the defects, the compromise of that belief provided good consideration for the builder’s promise.29 Furthermore, performing an obligation under a pre-existing contract is not a good consideration for a new promise for extra payment unless the performance of the obligation requires additional tasks to be completed or  involves providing additional practical benefit to the promisor.30 The additional practical benefit is an exception to the rule that a promise to carry out a pre-existing duty may create valid consideration. This has been show in the case of Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors).31 In Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls, Roffey were a firm of builders contracted to renovate a block of flats. Their own contract contained a penalty clause for late completion, so it was in their interest to finish the work in time. Part of this work they sub-contracted to Williams. As work progressed, Williams fell behind schedule because, they claimed, they had not set an adequate price for the work. They negotiated a new deal with Roffey that an additional sum was to be pay on the completion of each building. When the next building was complete, Roffey refused to pay. The court held that, there was consideration in this case as the new agreement conferred additional practical benefit on Roffey, in particular an early completion would allow them to avoid the exercise of the penalty clause. As we can see from the case of Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls, a promise to perform an existing contractual duty does not provide valuable consideration but the case show that Roffey had provide additional practical benefit and then consideration exist. Conclusion In conclusion, consideration must be of sufficient value in the eye of law and it must be something that identifiable and tangible. Thus, it does not have to be commercially adequate to the promise as the parties are free to make their own bargains and the court will not get involve into the commercial adequacy.32 Therefore, Australia Contract Law should not provide greater clarity as it is a sufficient consideration.

Cutlers in Colonial America essays

Cutlers in Colonial America essays In the tough times of the eighteenth century, people had plenty of work to do. However, if you lived in eighteenth century America, you had a lot of work to do. Most raw materials and supplies came only on ships and were heavily taxed. Everyone in their community did their share of work in order to stay alive. Colonial trade was important in the economics of the colonies, and Americans saw many different trades in their communities. One of those trades, cutlery, was especially important. Today, cutlery means utensils or tools for eating, but back then, cutlery meant a whole different type of thing. Since most foods were fingerfoods at that time, cutlers saw little use in making forks and spoons. Instead, they forged knives, ax blades, swords, lances, and things of that sort. They even made nail clippers and two-in-one blades! However, to make those things, you need skill and experience in the trade. Most cutlers got those skills from being an apprentice, or working at a trade without pay to see how a job gets done. In eighteenth century New England, living in cities was rough, especially during the revolutionary war. Families usually contained four or more children, and money was tough to earn. People saw opportunity in different trades, and according to their interest in them and the job's difficulty, chose the one they thought would be the best for themselves and their family. People paid for food, clothing, tools, and supplies by exchanging their items for the things they wanted. If one person did not want the thing that a person offered, they would have to find another supplier. At the present time, people exchange money for goods and services, unlike the goods and services offered for them back in the day, although sometimes, it still happens. To get supplies for a trade was tough in the beginning. For example, cutlers either had to mine their own iron and coal or purchase them from Europe. Mini ...

Strangler Fig - South Floridas Strange Hammock Tree

Strangler Fig - South Florida's Strange Hammock Tree Figs are successful forest trees with some 900 separate species worldwide. Figs are extremely common because of their excellent means of dispersal including abundant and good-tasting fruit. The strangler fig, or Ficus aurea, is one of the most interesting trees in a North American Everglades tropical hardwood hammock. Strangler figs, sometimes called golden fig are native to south Florida and the West Indies. The strangler fig produces a continuous crop of seeds via the fruit that is very important to the ecosystem and a major food source for animals. Birds transport and spread these seed in droppings. Strangler Fig's Unusual Propagation Method Strangler fig seeds are sticky and attach to a host tree where it germinates and thrives in tropical moisture. The strangler fig begins its life as a parasite-like epiphyte or air plant but is always seeking a path to the ground and a more dependable source for root uptake of nutrients. The trees seeds lodge in bark fissures of an unfortunate host, germinate and send out air roots that take in nutrients and water from the air and host tree. Eventually, the air roots grow to reach the ground and develop their own underground root system. Cabbage palms are favorite hosts for the strangler fig. Why the Name Strangler Fig The Stranger Fig is one of the strangest plants in a tropical hardwood hammock. It completely entwines its roots and trunk around a host tree. The figs crown grows foliage which soon overshadows the tree. Eventually, the host tree is strangled and dies, leaving the fig with a hollow trunk where the host used to be. The fig takes advantage of the nutrients produced by the rotting host. The Tropical Hardwood Hammock Strangler figs generally grow on raised land called hammocks. The typical tropical hardwood hammock in the Everglades develop only in areas that are protected from fire, flood and salt water. The strangler fig is a very important tree in a typical hammock but not the only tree. A figs tree cover type or biome includes Cabbage palm, slash pine, gumbo-limbo, saw-palmetto, poisonwood and live oak. The Importance of a Strangler Fig It is important to note that this killer epiphyte provides an important niche and food source to many tropical forest creatures. Its hollow trunk, with an abundance of nooks and crannies, provides an important home to thousands of invertebrates, rodents, bats, reptiles, amphibians, and birds. The strangler fig is also considered a keystone tree and necessary in the tropical hardwood ecosystem. Many forms of life are attracted to the fig tree because of its production of large amounts of fig fruits and can be the only source of food during certain seasons.

5 Types of Conditionals

5 Types of Conditionals 5 Types of Conditionals 5 Types of Conditionals By Mark Nichol When crafting â€Å"If (this), then (that)† statements, note that several varieties exist, distinguished by tense and probability. This post describes, with examples, various types of conditional statements. â€Å"Zero conditional† pertains to things that occur in the natural course of events: â€Å"If a person stands out in the rain, he or she gets wet.† Both the main clause (â€Å"he or she gets wet†) and the subordinate clause â€Å"if a person stands out in the rain†) are written in the present simple tense. The first conditional is a form of sentences in which the first clause includes if and a present simple-statement, followed by a future-simple statement in the second clause. By comparison, a second conditional follows the past simple with would and the infinitive. The distinction is that first conditionals are likely but not certain to happen, as in â€Å"If I talk to him, I will remind him,† while a second conditional describes something unlikely to occur, as in â€Å"If he showed some initiative, he would get a raise,† or something that is impossible, as in â€Å"If I could go back in time, I would do things differently.† A third conditional, by contrast, uses the past perfect and the past participle to describe something that did not occur in the past and therefore will never happen (at least, that iteration of the occurrence will never happen, although a repeat attempt might succeed), as in â€Å"If she had remembered to set her alarm, she would have gotten to school on time.† Beware of writing conditional sentences in which an if statement posed in the present-simple tense is followed by a statement that is true regardless of the conditional established in the previous clause, as in â€Å"If you want to get a great burrito, my favorite taqueria is next to the movie theater downtown.† The writer’s favorite taqueria is in the stated location regardless of the desires of the recipient of the communication, so the conditional form is not appropriate here; it would be better to write, â€Å"If you want to get a great burrito, go to my favorite taqueria, next to the movie theater downtown.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:25 Subordinating ConjunctionsThe Four Sounds of the Spelling OUParataxis and Hypotaxis

Group-based learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Group-based learning - Essay Example It explains the processes and principles that would be followed when planning, organizing, and delivering group based training. Leadership is a skill that is taught in attempts of developing leaders who are not only morally acceptable but also technically sound. In any work place, leadership skills are vital in facilitating the expansion and thriving of a company’s operations. This means that, organizational leaders who have leadership skills would be able to encourage work teams to work towards the set objectives thus improving the work place experience (TAEDEL401A, 2012). Additionally, leadership skills would stimulate a leader to transform the performance of an organization. It is a skill that boosts confidence among individuals in leadership positions. Learning leadership skills would not only increase enthusiasm among participants in leadership positions, but also harmonizes employees’ interests with the organizational goals. In this respect, the table (Table 1) ou tlines a set of discussion question in leadership. These questions are meant to establish the leader skills within all participants. The participants of this training program would be divided into two groups. Each group shall have about five subjects. Each participant in the group would be required to give out his or her views concerning the discussion question. A printed work sheet having all questions shall be given to each participant. This means that, organizational leaders who have leadership skills.

Communication and Culture Issues over disrupted Software management Assignment - 1

Communication and Culture Issues over disrupted Software management - Assignment Example However, to achieve this, there is a need for a globally organized team to handle the production and the distribution of software. Considering that a single organization cannot afford to undertake the production and distribution of the software globally on its own, the collaboration with other partners to achieve this is inevitable (Andreessen, 2011). It is this collaboration with other business partners that makes the coordination of the business more complex, threatening to affect the software development project negatively. As observed by Lee, Delone and Espinosa, the factors that creates major barriers to the coordination between the software producers and their partners include geographic distance, time separation, cultural differences, language differences and organizational boundaries (Lee, Delone, & Espinosa, 2006). To add to this complexity is the fact that, businesses rarely understand what makes the global software business successful. Thus even when confronted by such challenges, businesses are not in a position to dissect and clearly identify the appropriate strategies that would see them overcome these challenges (Gonsalves, 2011). Nevertheless, there are certain strategies that can be applied to overcome such challenges, which include building a common platform, where the business partners should share an initial understanding of the suitable framework that would drive the collaboration between these business partners successful (Rosenberg, 2012). Labor organization is yet another strategy applicable to overcome the challenges of global software business partners’ communication since it entails the allocation of specialized duties to each of the partners, which ensures that they do not duplicate or overstep their operations thus avoiding the confusion that would ensue (Hoffman, 20 13). The creation of understanding is yet another vital

Tower of Hercules and Las Medulas Mines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Tower of Hercules and Las Medulas Mines - Essay Example This essay â€Å"Tower of Hercules and Les Madulas Mine† investigates the history of Spain. It is unique in the sense that many of the historical buildings survived the turmoil of different invaders. The Tower of Hercules is one such monument, which stands erect on the Spanish soil since the first century. The architectural splendor of the tower is the achievement of Gaius Sevius Lupus, a famous imperial architect of that era. Tower of Hercules originally stood thirty-four meter high, with three levels. The first level has the structure of a typical Roman lighthouse, just near to the base of the tower is a rectangular roman building which provides for the purpose of a fortress. The final level contains a magnificent sculpture park, with several rock carvings surrounding it on all sides. These rock carvings are from Iron Age as known through architectural excavations. This tower signifies such glory that during the Muslim era, many aristocrats had a desire to rest in its protec tion when they die. A small Muslim cemetery exists in its pavilion, which certainly relates to the historical diversity of Spain. Sculpture Park consists of many interesting curvatures. These include a huge structure of a snail, tall enough to dwarf the existence of the humans, the park also includes small doors paved for entry into the park, and these doors include symbols of strength such as two lions guarding the door. The park extends to the central structure and provides a nice picnic spot for modern day tourists.

Philo 110 2nd midterm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Philo 110 2nd midterm - Essay Example Most motorists believe that the majority of speed limits set by the Congress are usually below the average speed of traffic. The Congress usually set recommendable speed limits, on the federal highways, in order to protect innocent people from perishing in road accidents since every highway death is a regrettable death. Therefore, the key purpose of setting higher speed limits of 55 miles per hour is not to kill innocent citizens, but to provide a reasonable balance between convenience and safety. However, even with the set speed limits, people usually fall victims of highway accidents on a daily basis. Therefore, if Congress is aware that its set speed limits still leads to increased highway accidents and death, then it should be considered as a murder. Likewise, there is no need, for the Congress, to set speed limit at 45 miles per hour since it will not reduce road accidents with any significant amount, but it will only increase a driver’s violation of speed limit. I, there fore, agree with Lackey that such an action should be perceived as murder, and Congress should adopt more comprehensive actions to address this problem effectively. In defending and understanding of Preferential Treatment Programs, Wasserstrom bases his arguments on a statement â€Å"We are still living in a society in which a person’s race, his or her blackness rather than whiteness, is a socially significant and important category† (Shaw 350). Wasserstrom argues that preferential treatment programs are necessities in any society because they help in making the social condition of life less racially oppressive and unjust, and it also help in the equal distribution of national resources and opportunities. Additionally, such programs help people to realize their desirable aims and objectives without violating an individual’s rights, taking an impermissible character into account, denying other people what they deserve, and treating other people fairly. I agree wi th Wasserstrom’s perception because racism is one form of social discriminations that most societies are currently fighting to abolish. Preferential treatments are presumptively acceptable in any society because they work to fight the system of racial oppression, which is still in place, but it should not be, and their significance can only be relevant once they are fully adopted and integrated, in the society. I, therefore, agree with Wasserstrom that the preferential treatment programs should only be perceived as unjust if the constitute part of the larger system of racial oppression. John Isbister is determined to establish the meaning of justice in relation to economic and social fairness, in the context of boundaries of capitalism. He takes a practical approach about some significant questions about social and economic justice. For example, he argues â€Å"The greatest injustice of unregulated, free-market capitalism is that it provides for only some of the people and e xcludes others† (Shaw 386). I agree with Isbister that free-market capitalism is a means of benefiting the developed countries and exploiting the developing countries. Free-market capitalism has accumulated global wealth into one market, which has sent different nations to fight for their share. This implies that in order to obtain a significant share, a country has to have a significant amount of resources and

Why do people stay at ISS. (MA Human Resource Management) Essay

Why do people stay at ISS. (MA Human Resource Management) - Essay Example Evidence of this leadership structure at ISS is provided by The Finance Director (2010) to include what is referred to as a multi-local approach to management. The company recognises the importance of providing localised service provision based on cultural needs. It suggests diversity as a focus for people development. The company’s vision is to â€Å"lead facility services globally – by leading facility services locally† (the-fianance-director.com, 2010, p.1). ISS is decentralised (uk.issworld.com, 2010), with the intention of using people as resources to improve company position. Instances of identifying management philosophy is available throughout the organisation’s website as being transformational, defined as using charismatic personality, vision championing, and coaching as a new management philosophy (Endrissat, Muller & Meissner, 2005). In this sort of ideal environment that is people-focused, it would appear, at first glance, that employees stay with ISS because of their devotion to local culture and people development. However, turnover in certain segments continues to increase, most noticeable in cleaning, security, landscaping, and other blue collar job roles. Is there an ongoing problem with the manual labour team that needs identification? Why are there no other areas of the business experiencing high turnover? This proposed research project seeks to identify: The objectives chosen will provide information about whether there are cultural differences between manual and support workers that impact relationships or communications. The research intends to uncover what meaning the blue collar workers give to their job roles in relation to status, their family, or through self-analysis. In order to identify why people stay at ISS, it is first important to identify whey they might choose to leave in favour of other employment and see if these identified needs are present in the manual worker

Government and politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Government and politics - Essay Example These questions will be examined in the course of this essay. The institutions of the EU are sure to change due to the Lisbon Treaty, perhaps most dramatically in terms of international affairs. The new High Representative for Foreign Affairs will unify Europes foreign policy. This will have a significant impact. It’s important to ask the question, What is power on the international scene? Part of it must surely have to do with purely military force (Kagan, 12). The US is the lone power in the world with the ability to conduct expeditionary warfare on multiple fronts across the globe whenever it wants to. As was demonstrated in the Balkans in the 1990s, Europeans aren’t able to project a credible military force even within Europe. Therefore the Europeans resort to the only thing they have for managing international conflicts, international institutions such as the UN. The success of European integration and solving the "German problem" has a lot of Europeans, Kagan says, to believe that they live in a Kantian paradise where inter national institutions can banish war forever (101). Americans have a different historical reality, and think of the world as a Hobbesian jungle where hard power rules. Now because of the Lisbon Treaty, Europeans will be taking more responsibility for their actions as a unified state. Hopefully, this will lead to the EU supporting the US in various actions rather than being a peanut gallery of criticism, with various European foreign minister sniping away (Nergelius, 89). Now Europe is left with two options: either they follow the US or be a silent partner. "Rather than viewing the US as a Gulliver tied down by Lilliputian threads", says Kagan, "American leaders should realize that they are hardly constrained at all, that Europe is not really capable of constraining the US" (100). The main reason he reaches this conclusion is because he thinks of power only in a

Why do people stay at ISS. (MA Human Resource Management) Essay

Why do people stay at ISS. (MA Human Resource Management) - Essay Example Evidence of this leadership structure at ISS is provided by The Finance Director (2010) to include what is referred to as a multi-local approach to management. The company recognises the importance of providing localised service provision based on cultural needs. It suggests diversity as a focus for people development. The company’s vision is to â€Å"lead facility services globally – by leading facility services locally† (the-fianance-director.com, 2010, p.1). ISS is decentralised (uk.issworld.com, 2010), with the intention of using people as resources to improve company position. Instances of identifying management philosophy is available throughout the organisation’s website as being transformational, defined as using charismatic personality, vision championing, and coaching as a new management philosophy (Endrissat, Muller & Meissner, 2005). In this sort of ideal environment that is people-focused, it would appear, at first glance, that employees stay with ISS because of their devotion to local culture and people development. However, turnover in certain segments continues to increase, most noticeable in cleaning, security, landscaping, and other blue collar job roles. Is there an ongoing problem with the manual labour team that needs identification? Why are there no other areas of the business experiencing high turnover? This proposed research project seeks to identify: The objectives chosen will provide information about whether there are cultural differences between manual and support workers that impact relationships or communications. The research intends to uncover what meaning the blue collar workers give to their job roles in relation to status, their family, or through self-analysis. In order to identify why people stay at ISS, it is first important to identify whey they might choose to leave in favour of other employment and see if these identified needs are present in the manual worker

Introduction To HRM 2 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Introduction To HRM 2 - Coursework Example Before review, human resource management was characterized by punishing employees who were not performing according to Cafe Co instead of training them. Employees were not highly valued but treated just like any other resource and paid minimum wages Furthermore, employee engagement and communication was not valued and human resource activities were aligned to company’s strategy only. All human resource roles were left to human resource department only. Cafe Co was only concerned with employee performance and not development. After the review, the company adopted much of the soft approach though it continued to align human resource activities to company’s strategy. Soft human resource classifies employees as special and treats them as human beings that need to be respected and trusted. Theory explains that employees’ skills need to be developed and nurtured. It also stresses better remuneration and taking good care of employees. Cafe Co accepted to adopt soft appr oach by appointing human resource representative to the company’s board. Kim adopted much of the soft approach after the review because she emphasized development of employees’ competency, advocating for increase in employee compensation and prioritized retention of employees. Employees are valued and referred to as colleagues and partners towards achievement of company’s vision and mission. ... There are a number of both advantages and disadvantages of devolving HR activities to line managers at Cafe Co. Employees are likely to receive quick response from their line managers, appropriate employees are likely to be selected because line managers are more likely to make correct decisions and there is possibility of increased employee productivity as employees concerns are responded in time. Devolving HR activities on the other hand may increase work load to the line managers, decrease importance of human resource specialists and line managers may be incompetent on human resource issues. Cafe Co is likely to benefit from devolving HR activities to line managers. Employees are likely to develop commitment and loyalty when their issues are responded to on time because they feel cared for. As a result, much of employee time will be used to work thus increasing their productiveness. Line managers are more likely to motivate and mentor their employees than overall HR specialists. H ow each of Ulrich’s HR roles could help the HR manager solve some of the problems in Cafe Co. According to Ulrich, human resource department act as a strategic partner, administrative expert, change agent as well as employee challenge (Holbeche, 2009). As a strategic partner, human resource department can align human resource initiatives and activities with mission and vision of Cafe Co. Strategic partner role informs Kim (human resource manager) to design work positions, strategic compensation and benefits, appraisal systems, succession and career planning as well as employee development to respond to the needs of the company. Strategic partner role pushes Kim to make employees to be more

Types of Parasites

Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode Types of Parasites Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode